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Ancient
Egypt was a civilization in the Lower Nile Valley extending
from as far south as Jebel Barkal, Napata, northward to the
Mediterranean Sea, though varying in size throughout its history
between circa 3200 BC and 332 BC, with the conquest of Alexander
the Great. As a civilization based on irrigation it is the
quintessential example of a hydraulic empire.
Geography:
Most of the geography of Egypt is in North Africa, although
the Sinai Peninsula is in Southwest Asia. The country has
shorelines on the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea; it borders
Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip,
Palestine and Israel to the east. Ancient Egypt was divided
into two kingdoms, known as Upper and Lower Egypt. Somewhat
counter-intuitively, Upper Egypt was in the south and Lower
Egypt in the north, named according to the flow of the Nile.
The Nile river flows northward from a southerly point to the
Mediterranean rather than southward from a northerly point.
The nile
river, around which much of the population of the country
clusters, has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since
the Stone Age and Naqada cultures.
Two Kingdoms formed Kemet ("the black"), the name
for the dark soil deposited by the Nile floodwaters. The desert
was called Deshret ("the red"), c.f. Herodotus:
"Egypt is a land of black soil.... We know that Libya
is a redder earth." (Histories, 2:12). However Champollion
the Younger (who deciphered the Rossetta stone) in Expressions
et Termes Particuliers (Expression of Particular Terms) wrote
that Kmt did not actually refer to the soil but to a negroid
population in the sense of a "Black Nation" (see
Ancient Egyptian peoples below).
• Map of Egypt
• Economy of Egypt
History:
The ancient Egyptians themselves traced their origin to a
land they called Punt, or "Ta Nteru" ("Land
of the Gods"). Once commonly thought to be located on
what is today the Somali coast, Punt now is thought to have
been in either southern Sudan or Eritrea. The history of ancient
Egypt proper starts with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred
sometime around 3000 BC, though archaeological evidence indicates
a developed Egyptian society may have existed for a much longer
period.
• Pharaoh
Along the Nile, in 10th millennium BC, a grain-grinding culture
using the earliest type of sickle blades had been replaced
by another culture of hunters, fishers, and gathering peoples
using stone tools. Evidence also indicates human habitation
in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the Sudan border,
before 8000 BC. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around
8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, eventually
forming the Sahara (c.2500 BC), and early tribes naturally
migrated to the Nile river where they developed a settled
agricultural economy and more centralized society (see Nile:
History). There is evidence of pastoralism and cultivation
of cereals in the East Sahara in the 7th millennium BC. By
6000 BC ancient Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt
were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Mortar
(masonry) was in use by 4000 BC. The Predynastic Period continues
through this time, variously held to begin with the Naqada
culture. Some authorities however begin the Predynastic Period
earlier, in the Lower Paleolithic (see Predynastic Egypt).
Egypt unified as a single state circa 3000 BC. Egyptian chronology
involves assigning beginnings and endings to various dynasties
beginning around this time. The conventional Egyptian chronology
is the accepted developments during the 20th century, but
do not include any of the major revision proposals that have
also been made in that time. Even within a single work, often
archeologists will offer several possible dates or even several
whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may
be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles
on particular rulers. Often there are also several possible
spellings of the names.
List of Pharaohs -- The Pharaohs stretch from before 3000
BC to around 30 BC.
* Dynasties (see also: List of Egyptian dynasties):
* Early Dynastic Period of Egypt (1st - 2nd Dynasties; until
ca. 27th century BC)
* Old Kingdom (3rd - 6th Dynasties; 27th - 22nd centuries
BC)
* First Intermediate Period (7th - 11th Dynasties)
* Middle Kingdom of Egypt (11th - 14th Dynasties; 20th - 17th
centuries BC)
* Second Intermediate Period (14th - 17th Dynasties)
* Hyksos (15th - 16th Dynasties)
* New Kingdom of Egypt (18th - 20th Dynasties; 16th - 11th
centuries BC)
* Third Intermediate Period (21st - 25th Dynasties; 11th -
7th centuries BC)
* Late Period of Ancient Egypt (26th - 31 Dynasties; 7th century
BC - 332 BC)
* Achaemenid Dynasty
* Graeco-Roman Egypt (332 BC - AD 639)
* Ptolemaic Dynasty
* Roman Empire
Language:
The ancient Egyptians spoke an Afro-Asiatic language related
to Chadic, Berber and Semitic languages. Records of the ancient
Egyptian language have been dated to about 3200 BC. Scholars
group the Egyptian language into six major chronological divisions:
* Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC)
* Old Egyptian (2600–2000 BC)
* Middle Egyptian (2000–1300 BC)
* Late Egyptian (1300–700 BC)
* Demotic Egyptian (7th century BC–4th century AD)
* Coptic (3rd–12th century AD)
Writing:
Egyptologists refer to Egyptian writing as hieroglyphs, together
with the cuneiform script of Mesopotamia ranking as the world's
oldest writing system. The hieroglyphic script was partly
syllabic, partly ideographic. Hieratic is a cursive form of
Egyptian hieroglyphs first used during the First Dynasty (c.
2925 BC - c. 2775 BC). The term Demotic in the context of
Egypt, That is, "indigenous" from a Hellenistic
point of view, came to refer to both the script and the language
that followed the Late Ancient Egyptian stage from the Nubian
25th dynasty until its marginalization by the Greek Koine
in the early centuries AD. After the conquest of Umar ibn
al-Khattab, the Coptic language survived into the Middle Ages
as the liturgical language of the Christian minority.
The hieroplyphic script finally fell out of use around the
4th century, and began to be rediscovered from the 15th century
(see Hieroglyphica).
The oldest known alphabet (abjad) was also created in ancient
Egypt, as a derivation from syllabic hieroglyphs, see Middle
Bronze Age alphabets.
Literature
* c.2500 BC - Westcar Papyrus
* c.1800 BC Story of Sinuhe
* c. 1800 BC - Ipuwer papyrus
* c. 1800 BC - Papyrus Harris I
* c. 1000 BC Story of Wenamun
Culture
Colossus of Memnon
The Egyptian religions, embodied in Egyptian mythology, were
the succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt, until
the coming of Christianity and Islam. These were conducted
by Egyptian priests or magicians, but the use of magic and
spells is questioned. The religious nature of ancient Egyptian
civilization influenced its contribution to the arts of the
ancient world. Many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict
gods, goddesses, and pharaohs, who were also considered divine.
Ancient Egyptian art in general is characterized by the idea
of order.
Evidence of mummies and pyramids outside ancient Egypt indicate
reflections of ancient Egyptian belief values on other prehistoric
cultures, transmitted in one way over the Silk Road.
Some scholars have speculated that Egypt's art pieces are
sexually symbolic.
Ancient Egyptian peoples
Neolithic Egypt was probably inhabited by black African (Nilotic)
peoples (as demonstrated by Saharan petroglyphs throughout
the region). Following the desiccation of the Sahara, most
black Africans migrated south into East and West Africa. The
Aterian culture that developed here was one of the most advanced
Paleolithic societies. In the Mesolithic the Capsian culture
dominated the region with Neolithic farmers becoming predominant
by 6000 BC (see Predynastic Egypt). The ancient Egyptians
spoke an Afro-Asiatic language, related to Chadic, Berber
and Semitic languages, and recorded their origin as the Land
of Punt (see Early Dynastic Period of Egypt).
Herodotus once wrote, "the Colchians are Egyptians ...
on the fact that they are black-skinned and have wooly hair"
(Histories Book 2:104), and Champollion the Younger (who deciphered
the Rossetta stone) in Expressions et Termes Particuliers
(Expression of Particular Terms) claimed that Kmt never actually
referred to the soil but to a negroid population in the sense
of "Black Nation". A recent genetic study links
the maternal lineage of a traditional population from Upper
Egypt to Eastern Africa. A separate study further narrows
the genetic lineage to Northeast Africa (; reveals also that
modern day Egyptians "reflect a mixture of European,
Middle Eastern, and African").
The oldest known Egyptian artifact depicting facial features
is that of a Gerzean girl, dating to the 4th millennium BC.
Characteristics include wide nose and lips and long hair,
all found in Northeast Africa. Racial classification of ancient
Egypt has come to play a role in the Afrocentrism debate in
the USA (see Egypt and Black Identity for a discussion).
Although analyzing the hair of ancient Egyptian mummies from
the Late Middle Kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable
diet [6], mummies from circa 3200 BC show signs of severe
anemia and hemolitic disorders [7]. Traces of cocaine, hashish
and nicotine have also been found in the skin and hair of
Egyptian mummies [8]. Interestingly, as a footnote, the coca
plant is indigenous to the South American Andes and could
not have survived naturally in the arid Sahara (see Coca).
Animals were valued in the Egyptian culture, including dogs
and cats, as evidenced by mummified remains.
Ancient achievements
See Predynastic Egypt for inventions and other significant
achievements in the Sahara region before the Protodynastic
Period. For example the world's earliest known writing system
dates to the predynastic era.
The art and science of engineering was present in Egypt, such
as accurately determining the position of points and the distances
between them (known as surveying). These skills were used
to outline pyramid bases. The Egyptian pyramids took the geometric
shape formed from a polygonal base and a point, called the
apex, by triangular faces. Hydraulic Cement was first invented
by the Egyptians. The Al Fayyum Irrigation (water works) was
one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world.
There is evidence of ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the twelfth
dynasty using the natural lake of the Fayyum as a reservoir
to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons.
From the time of the First dynasty or before, the Egyptians
mined turquoise in Sinai Peninsula.
The earliest evidence (circa 1600 BC) of traditional empiricism
is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and
Ebers papyri. The roots of the Scientific method may be traced
back to the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians are also
credited with devising the world's earliest known alphabet,
decimal system [10] and complex mathematical formularizations,
in the form of the Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri. An
awareness of the Golden ratio seems to be reflected in many
constructions, such as the Egyptian pyramids.
Dynastic
* 3300 BC - Bronze works (see Bronze Age)
* 3200 BC - Egyptian hieroglyphs fully developed (see First
dynasty of Egypt)
* 3200 BC - Narmer Palette, world's earliest known historical
document
* 3100 BC - Decimal system, world's earliest (confirmed) use
* 3100 BC - Wine cellars, world's earliest known
* 3100 BC - Mining, Sinai Peninsula
* 3050 BC - Shipbuilding in Abydos,
* 3000 BC - Exports from Nile to Israel: wine (see Narmer)
* 3000 BC - Copper plumbing (see Copper: History)
* 3000 BC - Medical Institutions
* 3000 BC - Papyrus, world's earliest known paper
* 3000 BC - Senet, world's oldest (confirmed) board game
* 2900 BC - possible steel: carbon-containing iron,
* 2700 BC - Surgery, world's earliest known
* 2700 BC - precision Surveying
* 2600 BC - Sphinx, still today the world's largest single-stone
statue
* 2600s-2500 BC - Shipping expeditions: King Sneferu and Pharaoh
Sahure.
* 2600 BC - Barge transportation, stone blocks (see Egyptian
pyramids: Construction)
* 2600 BC - Pyramid of Djoser, world's earliest known large-scale
stone building
* 2600 BC - Menkaure's Pyramid & Red Pyramid, world's
earliest known works of carved granite
* 2600 BC - Red Pyramid, world's earliest known "true"
smooth-sided pyramid; solid granite work
* 2580 BC - Great Pyramid of Giza, the world's tallest structure
until AD 1300
* 2500 BC - Beekeeping,
* 2400 BC - Astronomical Calendar, used even in the Middle
Ages for its mathematical regularity
* 2200 BC - Beer,
* 1860 BC - possible Nile-Red Sea Canal (Twelfth dynasty of
Egypt)
* 1800 BC - Alphabet, world's oldest known
* 1800 BC - Berlin Mathematical Papyrus, 2nd order algebraic
equations
* 1800 BC - Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, generalized formula
for volume of frustum
* 1650 BC - Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: geometry, cotangent
analogue, algebraic equations, arithmetic series, geometric
series
* 1600 BC - Edwin Smith papyrus, medical tradition traces
as far back as c. 3000 BC
* 1550 BC - Ebers Medical Papyrus, traditional empiricism;
world's earliest known documented tumors (see History of medicine)
* 1500 BC - Glass-making, world's earliest known
* 1258 BC - Peace treaty, world's earliest known (see Ramesses
II )
* 1160 BC - Turin papyrus, world's earliest known geologic
and topographic map
* 5th-4th century BC (or perhaps earlier) - battle games,
petteia and seega; possible precursors to Chess (see Origins
of chess)
*
Other:
* c.2500 BC - Westcar Papyrus
* c.1800 BC - Ipuwer papyrus
* c.1800 BC - Papyrus Harris I
* c.1400 BC - Tulli Papyrus
* c.1300 BC - Brugsch Papyrus
* Unknown date - Rollin Papyrus
See also:
* History of Egypt
* Egyptology
* Egyptian Museum
* List of Ancient Egyptians
* List of Ancient Egyptian sites
* List of ancient Egypt mysteries
* Mummies
* Pyramid sites
* Afrocentrism
See
also:
• List
of Cities in Egypt
• Cairo
• Sharm
El Sheikh
•
Canopic
Jars
• King Tut - Tutankhamun
• Egyptian Hieroglyph
• Egyptian Museum
• Mummy
• Giza
• Great Sphinx of Giza
• Great Pyramid of Giza
• Sea Peoples
• Ramesses III
• Ramesses IV
This
article is licensed under the GNU
Free Documentation License.
It uses material from the Wikipedia
article "Ancient Egyptian".
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